The problem of evil, in the sense in which I shall be using the phrase, is a problem only for someone who believes that there is a God who is both omnipotent and wholly good… In its simplest form the problem is this: God is omnipotent; God is wholly good; and yet evil exists. There seems to be some contradiction between these three propositions, so that if any two of them were true and third would be false. But at the same time all three are essential parts of most theological positions.Mackie goes on to address the counter-arguments given by theists and although we will briefly take a look at those as I would like to be thorough in examining Mackie’s stance, I would like to try to explain how the main principles of theism can be non-contradictory by themselves in reflection to Christian scriptures and general teachings. This means that I will be dismissing the arguments in a similar fashion that Mackie dismisses these claims.
The four counter-claims that are examined in Mackie’s article are as follows:
- “Good cannot exist without evil” or “Evil is necessary as a counterpart to Good.”
- “Evil is necessary as a means to good.”
- “The Universe is better with some evil in it than it could be if there were no evil”
- “Evil is due to human freewill.”
The second point also puts a limit on God’s omnipotence and Mackie argues that it puts a “severe restriction on God’s power.” I would also argue that a wholly good God would not use evil as a means to good and to believe that evil was necessary and God could not control that aspect is fallacious when viewed together with His omnipotence. This point also applies to the next argument.
The third point is a subtle variation of the second point where a certain level of evil is acceptable as good can overcome evil and it is a higher level of good that comes out of this process. Arguably, challenges and trials in this world drive us to discipline ourselves and make us stronger (not just physically) and hence better. However, there isn’t just a superficial level of evil in this world (ie. pain and suffering); there are higher orders of evil that causes the first level of evil and so on. Thus, it is difficult to see how the universe can be a better place by overcoming those levels of evil and leads to an “infinite regress”.
The fourth point, first off, presupposes human’s free will, and moves onto make the argument that implies God does not have a complete control over human beings which is a problem for His omnipotence. In that regard, Mackie inquires why God does not intervene when humans tend towards evil and if God is choosing not to intervene, the indifference to our suffering seems to suggest that God is not wholly good. If you presuppose human’s complete free will, it also brings into a question of God’s omnipotence by stating that God cannot control his creation and hence brings about the question of His omnipotence.
In order to take a closer look at this issue, let us reflect back to the three main principles that are held fast by the Judeo-Christian-Islam conception of God:
- God is all powerful – omnipotent
- God is all knowing – omniscient
- God is all good – omnibenevolent
To clarify some basic clash between the above three principles of Christian faith, the third point needs to be supported more specifically:
3. God is all good, and hence God must hate all evil.
This also makes a good support for God’s omniscience as God is aware of evil but He chooses not to act on evil as he embodies all that is good.
Another question arises in the statement that “God is all good”. Socrates asks a famous philosophical question in Plato’s Euthyphro: “Is conduct right because the gods command it, or do gods command it because it is right?” This question essentially asks whether good is something that is in favor of God’s will or if God is merely aware of what is good. The latter suggests there is something beyond God, the concept of good and evil, and hence goes against God’s omnipotence. The former, as some Christians believe, is partially right but is not complete. The statement by itself introduces arbitrary element in what is good and what is evil. If God chose, for no apparent reason, that murder is good, as opposed to evil, there is no justification for the opposite as God merely chose it to be good. However, the attribute of goodness comes into question. In His Omnipotence, God is the embodiment of what is good and has a complete control over good and evil. He commands it because it is so and He has created the universe to be so. Our perception and our rational judgment of what is good and evil all comes into question if we are created. According to the scripture, “God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created man” (Genesis 1:27). Therefore, our judgment and our rationality are all from God and since our judgment can be clouded and tempted by what is sin and evil, God lays down what is truly good through agents that he speaks to, prophets; and through “His only son” (John 3:16), son of man but God.
Of course, this all loops back to the inquiry into the existence of evil and whether or not it forms a contradictory argument against the main principles regarding the nature of God. At the beginning, in genesis, God creates a world that is “very good” (Gen 1:31) in his eyes. Man was created in His image and God “blessed them… and [gave] dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over every living thing that moves on the earth.” (Gen 1:28) In this regard, man was blessed and had dominion over every creature in the world. At the same time, God tells man that the man “may surely eat of every tree of the garden, but of the tree of knowledge of good and evil [man] shall not eat, for in the day that [man eats] of it, [he] shall surely die.” (Gen 2:16) This passage also brings up the fact that by creation, there is evil but man is just not aware of it. When man and woman disobey, God curses man and takes away the dominion over all creatures and makes the warning come true as man, in Christian view, surely dies unless saved by the grace of God. The thing to note here is that man’s suffering and pain comes from the initial curse that is placed upon man and the pain of childbearing:
In regards to the other concept of “evil” that is spoken in Genesis, (From this point on, it is my interpretation of the biblical event and I acknowledge that I cannot know for certain what God’s intentions were) it seems evident that the tree was placed for man. Although, since God is omniscient, He was fully aware that man would rebel against His command, the actual purpose of the tree seems to be that man was supposed to eat of it and be aware of good and evil when man is more mature. Perhaps mature enough to grasp the concept of faith and thus be able to receive salvation from death that would come of the knowledge of good and evil. This leaves many questions to answer: mainly – still unanswered – why create a universe with evil? Perhaps this answer is deep-seated with free will that God lets us have to an extent. The concept of complete free will of man goes directly against the concept of God’s complete control over the universe but at the same time, we are able to make rational decisions and we do seemingly have control over our decisions. This does not have to be necessarily contradictory as God can be aware of all our actions (present and future) and what the future holds for us as He must be in control of time if he is to be all powerful; but being aware and intervening at times does not necessarily take away our free will completely. I would argue that our free will is preserved only to the extent that God allows it to and that seems to be the most rational conclusion that I could derive from the nature of this universe. Perhaps, in a universe that lacks evil, man merely obeys all that is good without questioning and thus we do not have to make the difficult choice to do what is right; the difficult choice to believe in the unseen. This seems to encompass some concepts from the four points that Mackie (and I) dismissed but some aspects of them has certain truth, although incomplete, in it.
The answer I arrived at is that, in order to preserve our rationality and free will to the extent that God allows it, God created a universe with good and evil so that man must choose to follow good as God allows it while being aware of the options. To Mackie’s article – pain and suffering of this earth and of the nature all comes from the initial defiance of man and the curse that followed from it; evil nature of man and the awareness of evil comes from the tree of knowledge of good and evil and the “death” that followed by partaking in the fruit of good and evil.
This also makes a good support for God’s omniscience as God is aware of evil but He chooses not to act on evil as he embodies all that is good.
Another question arises in the statement that “God is all good”. Socrates asks a famous philosophical question in Plato’s Euthyphro: “Is conduct right because the gods command it, or do gods command it because it is right?” This question essentially asks whether good is something that is in favor of God’s will or if God is merely aware of what is good. The latter suggests there is something beyond God, the concept of good and evil, and hence goes against God’s omnipotence. The former, as some Christians believe, is partially right but is not complete. The statement by itself introduces arbitrary element in what is good and what is evil. If God chose, for no apparent reason, that murder is good, as opposed to evil, there is no justification for the opposite as God merely chose it to be good. However, the attribute of goodness comes into question. In His Omnipotence, God is the embodiment of what is good and has a complete control over good and evil. He commands it because it is so and He has created the universe to be so. Our perception and our rational judgment of what is good and evil all comes into question if we are created. According to the scripture, “God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created man” (Genesis 1:27). Therefore, our judgment and our rationality are all from God and since our judgment can be clouded and tempted by what is sin and evil, God lays down what is truly good through agents that he speaks to, prophets; and through “His only son” (John 3:16), son of man but God.
Of course, this all loops back to the inquiry into the existence of evil and whether or not it forms a contradictory argument against the main principles regarding the nature of God. At the beginning, in genesis, God creates a world that is “very good” (Gen 1:31) in his eyes. Man was created in His image and God “blessed them… and [gave] dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the heavens and over every living thing that moves on the earth.” (Gen 1:28) In this regard, man was blessed and had dominion over every creature in the world. At the same time, God tells man that the man “may surely eat of every tree of the garden, but of the tree of knowledge of good and evil [man] shall not eat, for in the day that [man eats] of it, [he] shall surely die.” (Gen 2:16) This passage also brings up the fact that by creation, there is evil but man is just not aware of it. When man and woman disobey, God curses man and takes away the dominion over all creatures and makes the warning come true as man, in Christian view, surely dies unless saved by the grace of God. The thing to note here is that man’s suffering and pain comes from the initial curse that is placed upon man and the pain of childbearing:
And to Adam he said:The pain and suffering that Mackie defines “evil” as, all seem to hail from this initial curse upon man, as God introduces the concept of pain and suffering along with natural disasters: “cursed is the ground”. God also introduces the concept of death at this point, and the pain of childbearing: we can speculate that initially man was not mortal until this point, in terms of biblical creation. The evil that Mackie speaks of are lacking in the perfect world – Garden of Eden – that God initially bestows upon man and woman. However, the conceptual existence of evil that I mentioned before eventually leads to man’s defiance against God and man is banished from the paradise which existed without “evil” that Mackie speaks of.
“Because you have listened to the voice of your wife and have eaten of the tree of which I commanded you, ‘You shall not eat of it,’ cursed is the ground because of you; in pain you shall eat of it all the days of your life; thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you; and you shall eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread, till you return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; for you are dust, and to dust you shall return.” (Gen 3:17-19)
In regards to the other concept of “evil” that is spoken in Genesis, (From this point on, it is my interpretation of the biblical event and I acknowledge that I cannot know for certain what God’s intentions were) it seems evident that the tree was placed for man. Although, since God is omniscient, He was fully aware that man would rebel against His command, the actual purpose of the tree seems to be that man was supposed to eat of it and be aware of good and evil when man is more mature. Perhaps mature enough to grasp the concept of faith and thus be able to receive salvation from death that would come of the knowledge of good and evil. This leaves many questions to answer: mainly – still unanswered – why create a universe with evil? Perhaps this answer is deep-seated with free will that God lets us have to an extent. The concept of complete free will of man goes directly against the concept of God’s complete control over the universe but at the same time, we are able to make rational decisions and we do seemingly have control over our decisions. This does not have to be necessarily contradictory as God can be aware of all our actions (present and future) and what the future holds for us as He must be in control of time if he is to be all powerful; but being aware and intervening at times does not necessarily take away our free will completely. I would argue that our free will is preserved only to the extent that God allows it to and that seems to be the most rational conclusion that I could derive from the nature of this universe. Perhaps, in a universe that lacks evil, man merely obeys all that is good without questioning and thus we do not have to make the difficult choice to do what is right; the difficult choice to believe in the unseen. This seems to encompass some concepts from the four points that Mackie (and I) dismissed but some aspects of them has certain truth, although incomplete, in it.
The answer I arrived at is that, in order to preserve our rationality and free will to the extent that God allows it, God created a universe with good and evil so that man must choose to follow good as God allows it while being aware of the options. To Mackie’s article – pain and suffering of this earth and of the nature all comes from the initial defiance of man and the curse that followed from it; evil nature of man and the awareness of evil comes from the tree of knowledge of good and evil and the “death” that followed by partaking in the fruit of good and evil.
Hey, just checking out your other posts. You ought to look at Alvin Plantinga's free will defense in his book 'God, Freedom, and Evil'. I wrote a short summery on my blog if you'd like to see it: http://suckstoyourasthmar.wordpress.com/2012/02/20/the-free-will-defense/
ReplyDeleteI think Plantinga's free will defense is pretty successful against Mackie's arguments and the logical problem of evil in general.
Yeah, I was still working through this issue when I wrote this paper, not to say I have it all figured out now. I think I might write a version 2 of this paper..
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